Microstructuring optical wave guide devices with femtosecond optical pulses

ABSTRACT

The present invention is directed to the creation of zones of permanently altered refractive index characteristics in glass waveguiding devices, including optical fibers and optical waveguides pre-existed in a glass substrate. Such zones in which the refractive index has been permanently altered are created in glass using a very high intensity laser beam which is produced by focusing the light output from an ultrafast pulsed laser at a predetermined target region in the glass. The preferred laser is a Ti:Sapphire amplified, frequency-doubled Erbium-doped fiber laser system, providing light pulses of approximately 100 femtosecond duration, each with an energy of between about 1 nanojoule and 1 millijoule, and preferably at a pulse repetition rate of between 500 Hz and 1 GHz. The repetition rate is chosen to deliver pulses faster than the thermal diffusion time over the dimensions of the volume element being modified. This latter process is to accumulate heat to the point of liquefying the material in order to increase material compliance to the femtosecond writing process and increase the subsequent thermal barrier to relaxation of the written structural element and thereby increase the lifetime of the device or structural function. One or more zones of permanently altered refractive index characteristics can be formed in a waveguiding device, such as an optical fiber by utilizing a focused, pulsed, laser light source which generates a focal region having an intensity greater than the threshold for inducing permanent refractive index changes in the device. The focal region is aligned with the device and relative movement between the focal region and the device has the effect of sweeping the focal region across the device in a predetermined path. The result is a zone within the device in which the refractive index characteristics of the device have been permanently altered so as to control amplitude, phase, spatial propagation or polarization states of light within the material.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority based on Canadian Application No.2,396,831, filed Aug. 2, 2002.

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/632,111, filed Aug. 1, 2003, the contents of which are incorporatedherein by reference.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The invention relates to the creation of permanently altered refractiveindex zones in glass waveguiding devices, including optical fibers andoptical waveguides pre-existed in a glass substrate, using the focusedlight output of ultrafast pulsed lasers, and to all-fiber devicesincorporating such zones exhibiting permanently altered refractive indexcharacteristics.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RELATED ART

All-fiber optical devices have many practical advantages, including lowloss, ease of coupling with other fibers, polarization insensitivity,temperature insensitivity, and simple packaging, which make themattractive and low-cost solutions in the optical telecommunications andother industries. All-fiber devices rely on refractive index variationsfor their functions, and various methods for making permanent refractiveindex changes have been used in the past. Older methods have relied onexposing photosensitive optical fiber, such as Germanium doped opticalfiber, to ultraviolet light to produce refractive index changes in theglass.

A more recent method relies on the use of ultrafast pulsed lasers forproducing very high intensity light and the resulting non-linear opticaleffects which are responsible for the refractive index modificationphenomenon, see for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,297,894 to Miller, et al.This method does not need photosensitive optical fiber. It works withmany common optical fibers, including conventional telecommunications,sensor and amplifier fibers as well as undoped optical fibers, andphotosensitive optical fibers. This particular patent is based on thepremise expounded by K. M. Davis et al in Opt. Lett. 21, 1729 (1996) andin a paper by E. N. Glezer et al in Opt. Lett. 21, 2023 (1996) to theeffect that refractive index changes (Δn) of about 0.1 written in fusedsilica using tightly focused pulses with peak intensities of about 10¹³W/cm² are due to the creation of free electrons through multiphotonionization of bound charges, followed by avalanche ionization andlocalized dielectric breakdown as the free electrons are accelerated bythe intense laser field. This leads to a localized melting andcompaction of material and to a concurrent increase in the index ofrefraction.

Ultrafast pulsed lasers allow moderate pulse energies to produce veryhigh peak pulse intensities. Focusing the laser beam with lenses ormirrors achieves peak pulse intensities of 10¹⁰ W/cm² and higher in thefocal region, which is above the threshold for inducing permanentrefractive index changes.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to the creation of zones ofpermanently altered refractive index characteristics in glass,particularly in optical waveguides and optical fibers, based on theprinciples expounded by Glezer et al and by Davis et al. Such zones inwhich the refractive index has been permanently altered are created inglass using a very high intensity laser beam which is produced byfocusing the light output from an ultrafast pulsed laser at apredetermined target region in the glass. The preferred laser system forthis invention is one in which the output of a frequency-doubledErbium-doped fiber laser is amplified in a laser regenerative amplifierthat is based on a Ti:Sapphire gain material, providing light pulses ofapproximately 100 femtosecond duration, each with an energy of betweenabout 1 nanojoule and 1 millijoule, and preferably at a pulse repetitionrate of between 500 Hz and 1 GHz. The invention embodies the use oflaser repetition rates selected so that the time interval between laserpulses interacting with the material is shorter than the thermaldiffusion time out of the volume element being modified by the laser.This time depends on the laser spot size and thermal diffusivity of thespecific material. The temperature of the glass is raised to theliquefying point thereby enabling optimal compaction of the written areawith minimal stress.

With the present invention, one or more zones of permanently alteredrefractive index characteristics can be formed in a waveguiding device,such as an optical fiber, by utilizing a focused, pulsed, laser lightsource which generates a focal region having an intensity greater thanthe threshold for inducing permanent refractive index changes in thedevice. The focal region is aligned with the device and relativemovement between the focal region and the device has the effect ofsweeping the focal region across the device in a predetermined path. Theresult is a zone within the device in which the refractive indexcharacteristics of the device have been permanently altered. Bycontrolling the intensity, the size, the duration, and the path of themoving focal region one or more zones of accurately defined dimensionscan be created.

The altered zones in optical waveguides and fibers have a threefoldeffect. First, refractive index changes in the core and in thecore-cladding boundary region, and possibly in the evanescent region inthe cladding, allow light propagating in the core to escape to thecladding. Second, the altered zone itself acts as an optical waveguide,allowing light propagating in the core to escape to and then from thealtered zone. Third, the surface of a suitably oriented altered zoneacts as a reflecting surface. These three effects can be used for makingall-fiber devices.

An all-fiber attenuator, an all-fiber tap, and an all-fiber polarimeterwill be described hereinafter. All-fiber attenuators utilizing the threeeffects mentioned above scatter light out of the core, thereby achievingadjustable losses of 0-40 dB which can be set in less than 0.1 dBincrements. All-fiber taps can be made with a typical tap ratio of 1%.All-fiber polarimeters utilize the reflecting surfaces of altered zonesthat are oriented at Brewster angles to reflect s-polarized light out ofthe core. By using four of such altered zones which are positioned alongthe length of an optical waveguide or fiber, with azimuthal anglesspaced 45 degrees apart, all four Stokes parameters that completelyspecify the polarization state of the light propagating in the core canbe measured. The optical return loss for all-fiber devices made withaltered zones is greater than 40 dB. With the present invention it ispossible to manipulate and control all possible states of lights withinan optical fiber or pre-waveguide, including amplitude, phase,polarization and propagation direction.

It is also possible to create more complex devices, such as interleaversand Mach-Zehnder interferometers, based on multiple core and/or multiplecladding fibers. Such devices could be based, for example, oninterconnecting different cores within a multiple core fiber usingmethods described herein to couple light into and out of altered indexof refraction zones within the fiber and into and out of different coresin the fiber. Such a method could be used to create a wide variety ofcomplex devices with a significant reduction in manufacturing, packagingand engineering costs. Such devices would be much more compact thansimilar devices manufactured using other methods.

The creation of such altered zones to control the states of lightpropagation in a fiber eliminates the need for precision alignment atthe input and/or the output of the fiber into another fiber. Thisgreatly reduces the insertion losses and the cost of the all-fiberdevice. Additionally, the process of the present invention is one thatcan be fully automated, thereby reducing the cost of achievingwaveguides with the permanently altered zones therein and ensuring theproduction of consistent and high quality components.

In summary, the present invention may be generally considered to providea method of creating a zone of permanently altered refractive indexcharacteristics in an optical waveguiding device made of glass materialhaving at least one core and at least one cladding, using a beam whichis generated by a focused pulsed laser light source having:(i) awavelength greater than the absorption edge of the glass material; (ii)a pulse width of less than 1 picosecond, and a pulse energy of between 1nanojoule and 1 millijoule; and (iii) capable of achieving a peak pulseintensity within a defined focal region; comprising the steps of: (a)aligning the laser beam focal region with a defined target region withinthe waveguiding device; and (b) operating the laser light source withthe peak pulse intensity thereof and a repetition rate thereof selectedto accumulate heat and to soften the glass material at the target regionand to thereby induce permanent refractive index changes in thewaveguiding device at the target region.

The invention may also be considered to encompass an optical waveguidingdevice having at least one core, at least one cladding, and at least asingle zone therein at which the refractive index characteristics of thewaveguiding device have been permanently altered, whereby the alteredwaveguiding device can serve as an attenuator, a polarimeter, an opticaltap, or a more complex device.

Other beneficial material modification techniques that fall within thescope of this invention can be used for femtosecond-pulse-assistedmicrostructuring of an optical waveguide device. In general, thesespecial techniques involve the addition of externally applied stimuli tothe femtosecond-pulse micro structuring methods described in the body ofthe specification. Combining additional stimuli together withfemtosecond pulse exposure increases the functionality offemtosecond-pulse-modified optical-waveguide technology, as describedbelow.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an end view of a waveguiding device showing the basicprinciples of the method of the present invention with a single laserbeam.

FIG. 2 is a perspective schematic view of a portion of a waveguidingdevice with a zone of permanently altered refractive indexcharacteristics created therein, illustrating as well the basicprinciples of the present method.

FIG. 3 is an end view similar to that of FIG. 1 but showing the use of apair of laser beams to create a zone of altered refractive indexcharacteristics in the waveguiding device.

FIG. 4 is a view similar to that of FIG. 1 but showing the use of anoptical mirror to focus a single laser beam

FIG. 5 is a top plan view of a fiber showing a method of achieving azone of altered refractive index characteristics which is greater inwidth or thickness than the width of the laser beam used to create thezone.

FIG. 6 is a top plan view of a waveguiding device or fiber having anangled zone of permanently altered refractive index characteristicstherein, illustrating the effect thereof on light transmitted along thecore, the device being used as an attenuator.

FIG. 7 is a top plan view of a waveguiding device or fiber having a zoneof permanently altered refractive index characteristics therein,perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, illustrating the effect thereofon light transmitted along the core, the device being used as anattenuator.

FIG. 8 is a top plan view of a waveguiding device or fiber having a zoneof permanently altered refractive index characteristics therein,perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, illustrating the effect thereofon light transmitted along the core, the device being used as a tap.

FIG. 9 is a top plan view of a waveguiding device or fiber having anangled zone of permanently altered refractive index characteristicstherein, illustrating the effect thereof on light transmitted along thecore, the device being used as a tap.

FIG. 10 is a top plan view of a waveguiding device or fiber having anangled zone of permanently altered refractive index characteristicstherein, illustrating the effect thereof on light transmitted along thecore, the device being used as a polarimeter.

FIG. 11A is a top plan view of a polarimeter having four altered zonesand a λ/2 wave plate between a pair of altered zones.

FIG. 11B is an end view of the polarimeter of FIG. 11A.

FIG. 12A is a top plan view of a polarimeter having two identicalaltered zones therein.

FIG. 12B is an end view of the polarimeter of FIG. 12A.

FIG. 13A is a top view of a fiber with multiple cores and with alteredzones interconnecting various cores of the fiber.

FIG. 13B is an end view of the fiber illustrated in FIG. 13A.

FIG. 14A is an end view illustrating the application of mechanicalstress to an optical fiber.

FIG. 14B is an end view illustrating the creation of a zone ofpermanently altered refractive index characteristics during theapplication of mechanical stress.

FIG. 14C is an end view illustrating an altered stress field within thefiber once the mechanical stress has been removed.

FIG. 15A is an end view illustrating the application of a strongelectrical field to an optical fiber.

FIG. 15B is an end view illustrating the creation of a zone ofpermanently altered refractive index characteristics during theapplication of an external electrical field to the fiber.

FIG. 15C is an end view illustrating a static polarization field withinthe fiber once the electrical field has been removed.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The basic principles of the present invention will be describedimmediately hereinafter with particular reference to what is shown inFIGS. 1-5. Further details respecting practical applications of theinvention will be described thereafter with reference to FIGS. 6 to 15C.Information respecting the laser and other operating aspects of theinvention will then be described, as they are common to the differentphysical manifestations of practicing the method.

The Basics

FIG. 1 generally illustrates the basic principle of this invention,being the creation of a zone of permanently altered refractive indexcharacteristics in a waveguiding device such as an optical fiber 10. Thefiber is shown as including a central core 12 and a cladding 14 both ofwhich are generally symmetrical about a longitudinal axis A. A laser, tobe described in greater detail hereinafter, is positioned relative tothe waveguiding device so that a collimated beam 16 thereof is directedtowards the waveguiding device, generally at 90 degrees to thelongitudinal axis A. In the configuration shown in FIG. 1 the laser islocated above the waveguiding device, although it could just as easilybe positioned to one side thereof.

A lens 18 is positioned in the beam path so that the lens will focus thebeam, creating a focal region 20 that will be of a predetermined sizerelative to the waveguiding device, especially relative to the diameterof the core 12, and that will be located with its center generallyaligned laterally in the same plane as the longitudinal axis A. The lenscan be any optic such as a parabolic mirror, axicon, spherical orcylindrical element that is further used to make a beam focus thatproduces a desired index profile in the interaction zone. The focusingcondition represented by this lens can be improved by the use of indexmatching fluids to remove surface aberrations. Means, of a conventionalnature, are provided to move or sweep the focal region 20 laterallyrelative to the waveguiding device (arrow Y) so that the focal region 20enters the device and is swept thereacross. As will be describedhereinafter the laser is operated within parameters that cause the focalregion 20 to permanently alter the refractive index characteristics ofthe waveguiding device along the path that it follows as it is sweptthrough the device. By controlling the operation of the laser it ispossible to accurately define the size and position of the altered zonewithin the waveguiding device. A permanently altered zone is one thatcannot be erased, as for example by heating the fiber to a temperaturesufficient to erase conventionally produced anomalies in the fiber butbelow the melting temperature of the fiber.

FIG. 2 shows in a perspective view the waveguiding device in the form ofa glass fiber 10 including a central core 12 and a cladding 14 both ofwhich are symmetrical about the longitudinal axis A. Extending across atleast a portion of the fiber core 12 and/or at least a portion of thecladding 14 is a zone 22 of permanently altered refractive indexcharacteristics, created using a method as described with reference toFIG. 1. The height of the altered zone 22 is defined by the height ofthe focal region 20 and its lateral extent within the fiber isdetermined by the sweeping motion of the focal region along path Y andthe intensity of the laser beam. The zone 22 of permanently alteredrefractive index characteristics will have practical application, aswill be discussed hereinafter, in the context of the creation of fiberattenuators, taps, polarimeters and other more complex devices.

FIG. 3 illustrates a method of creating a zone of permanently alteredrefractive index within a waveguiding device 10 using a pair of laserbeams 16 and 16′. In this case the laser beams are focused by lenses 18,18′ and directed towards the waveguiding device so that the focal region24 exhibits an intensity which is generally a summation of theindividual laser beam intensities. This arrangement can be used tocreate a focal region of increased intensity if a pair of lasersgenerally the same as the single laser of FIG. 1 is used. Thisarrangement also allows for the utilization of individual lasers ofreduced intensity, when compared to the single-laser scenario of FIG. 1,with the additive intensity at the focal region being generally equal tothat of the single-laser scenario. It also provides a method of furtherlocalizing the altered zone 22, if desired.

FIG. 4 is a view similar to that of FIG. 1, but showing that the laserbeam 16 can be directed from an angle other than normal to thelongitudinal axis A. In this case the beam is redirected and focused bya mirror 26 so that the desired focal region 20 is created at thedesired location relative to the waveguiding device.

As seen in FIG. 5, the laser beam 16 can be swept across the fiber 10 ina path that not only crosses the fiber but also moves longitudinallythereof, thereby creating an altered zone 30 which has a width orthickness that is a multiple of the beam width. Each sweep adds athickness or width to the zone equal to a beam width. Thus, it is seenthat the laser beam focal region 20 starts at the point B, sweeps acrossthe fiber along a path P₁ which is at an angle a to the longitudinalaxis A to the point C at the other side of the fiber. It then is shiftedlongitudinally by a distance generally equal to a beam width to point Dand then it is swept back across the fiber along the path P₂, parallelto the path P₁. This sweeping pattern is followed until the zone 30 ofaltered refractive index characteristics of a desired width or thicknessis achieved.

FIG. 6 is a top view of an optical fiber waveguiding device 32 having azone 34 therein of permanently altered refractive index characteristics,created using one of the procedures previously described. FIG. 6illustrates the effect of such a zone on light that is normally beingtransmitted along the core 36. When the transmitted light L₁ encountersthe zone 34 a portion L₂ thereof will be scattered into the cladding;another portion L₃ will be guided outwardly along the altered zone 34;and yet another portion L₄ will be reflected as Fresnel reflected light.The remainder L₅ of the transmitted light L₁ will continue along thecore on the other side of the altered zone 34. It is possible to use theproperties of the altered zone to create devices which serve a usefulpurpose and can be utilized in other structures. In particular, newattenuators, taps and polarimeters are possible based on the principlesof the present invention.

Practical Applications

All-fiber Attenuator

An all-fiber attenuator is an optical waveguide or fiber whichattenuates light propagating in the core. The attenuation is achieved byletting a portion of the light escape from the core, which is in turnachieved by creating an altered refractive index zone at the escapelocation. The altered zone may be created at an acute angle to thelongitudinal axis of the optical waveguide or fiber (FIG. 6) orsubstantially perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis (FIG. 7). Thealtered zone 34, 35 may include refractive index changes in thecore-cladding boundary region, in the evanescent region in the cladding,and/or in the core of the optical waveguide or fiber. In the embodimentof FIG. 7 refractive index changes in the core-cladding boundary regionand in the evanescent region in the cladding lead to a coupling betweenthe core and the cladding propagation modes and therefore to part of thelight L₁ propagating in the core escaping into the cladding. In theembodiment of FIG. 6 refractive index changes in the core perturb thelight L₁ propagating in the core and part of it is scattered out of thecore via two escape mechanisms. The first escape mechanism scatters partL₃ of the light out of the core by coupling it to the waveguide formedby the altered zone 34 which is oriented at an acute angle to thelongitudinal axis of the optical waveguide or fiber. The secondscattering mechanism scatters part L₄ of the light out of the core byway of Fresnel reflection at the surface of the altered zone 34 which isoriented at an acute angle to the longitudinal axis of the opticalwaveguide or fiber. The surface of a suitably oriented altered zone actstherefore as a reflecting surface.

The achievable attenuation loss is between 0-40 dB depending on thelength of exposure time for making the altered zone, the light pulseenergy, the sweeping speed of the laser beam, the distance the writebeam has been swept across the optical fiber, and the angle that thesweeping direction makes with respect to the longitudinal axis of theoptical waveguide or fiber. Typically, losses due to altered refractiveindex zones can be as high as 40 dB with an accuracy of 0.05 dB.

In a preferred embodiment of an all-fiber attenuator, the loss can beaccurately adjusted using a combination of loss induced with therefractive index changes in the core-cladding boundary region and lossinduced with refractive index changes in the evanescent region in thecladding. At losses greater than 0.1 dB, the greater part of the losscan be induced with the refractive index changes in the core-claddingboundary region and fine adjustments to the loss in approximately 0.1 dBincrements can be induced with refractive index changes in theevanescent region in the cladding.

In another embodiment of an all-fiber attenuator, the loss may beinduced by sweeping the laser beam substantially parallel to the opticalfiber and centered in the evanescent region in the cladding, in thecore-cladding boundary region, or in the core. In this embodiment,typically the magnitude of the loss depends on the sweeping distance upto a loss of less than 1 dB for a single sweep, where the magnitude ofthe loss saturates for laser beam waist diameters of 10-20 micrometers.Within this limit, the loss can be adjusted by changing the length ofthe altered zone along the length of the optical waveguide or fiber.

When the loss has been induced by creating an altered zone at a smallangle to the longitudinal axis of the optical waveguide or fiber, theachievable loss can be greater than 30 dB. Typically, even for such veryhigh loss, the optical return loss is better than 40 dB, i.e. theintensity of light propagating in the core in the backward direction ismore than 40 dB below the intensity of the light propagating in the corein the forward direction.

All-Fiber Tap

An all-fiber tap is an optical waveguide or fiber which couples a smallportion of the light out of the core and out of the optical waveguide orfiber, which light can then be measured with an optical power detectorsuch as a photodiode or a photomultiplier tube. See for example thearrangements shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. In fact an optical tap can form thebasis for a power monitor in which the detector is used to collect lightfrom the tap and to send a signal indicative of power level to anappropriate information retrieval device.

With all-fiber taps light is coupled out of the core using similaraltered zones as in the above described case of an all-fiber attenuator,although the portion of the light coupled out of the core in the case ofan all-fiber tap is typically much smaller with a tap ratio of typically1%. The all-fiber tap therefore allows for the monitoring of the amountof light propagating in the core by monitoring the amount of lightcoupled out of the optical waveguide or fiber at the expense ofdiverting only a small amount of light.

Referring to FIG. 8, if the altered zone 38 is oriented perpendicularlyto the longitudinal axis A of the optical waveguide or fiber 10 then thelight L₆ coupled out of the core is at a grazing angle to the surface Sof the optical waveguide or fiber, and index matching fluid F can beused to avoid total internal reflection at the surface of the opticalwaveguide or fiber, and to allow the light to escape from the opticalwaveguide or fiber and be detected by an optical detector 40. Referringto FIG. 9, if the altered zone 42 is oriented at a sufficiently largeangle to the longitudinal axis A of the optical waveguide or fiber 10then index matching fluid can be omitted, since the light coupled out ofthe core may be at a larger angle than the critical angle for totalinternal reflection, thereby avoiding total internal reflection at thesurface of the optical waveguide or fiber.

The optical return loss for all-fiber taps is greater than 40 dB.

All-Fiber Polarimeter

An all-fiber polarimeter is an optical waveguide or fiber capable ofmeasuring the polarization states of the light propagating in its core.To this end, a number of reflecting surfaces must be orientedsubstantially at a Brewster angle to the longitudinal axis of theoptical waveguide or fiber, such that mainly s-polarized light will bereflected with negligible amount of p-polarized light reflection.Spacing the azimuthal angle of four reflecting surfaces along the lengthof an optical waveguide or fiber by 45 degrees allows for themeasurement of all four Stokes parameters, thereby specifying thecomplete polarization state of the light propagating in the core. Aprior art all-fiber polarimeter by Westbrook, Strasser, and Erdogan usesa blazed fiber Bragg grating for each of the reflective surfaces (IEEEPhotonics Technology Letters, Vol. 12, No. 10, pp. 1352-1354, October2000).

With reference to FIG. 10, an embodiment of an all-fiber polarimeteraccording to this invention implements each of the four reflectivesurfaces with an altered zone, taking advantage of the reflectiveproperties of the surface of an altered zone. For the sake of simplicityonly one altered zone 44 is shown in the figure. The Brewster angle ofan altered zone depends on the pulse energy, the pulse width, the pulserepetition rate, the sweep speed, and the size of the waist of the writebeam. A reflecting surface with a Brewster angle of 45 degrees whichconveniently reflects s-polarized light L₇ in a direction perpendicularto the longitudinal axis A of the optical waveguide or fiber will haveminimal contamination of p-polarized light. As shown in FIGS. 11A and11B a polarimeter is shown with four altered zones 44 ₁, 44 ₂, 44 ₃ and44 ₄ at substantially 90 degrees to each other. A λ/2 wave plate 46 maybe inserted between a pair of adjacent altered zones, such as the thirdand fourth altered zones 44 ₃, 44 ₄, to distinguish between right andleft circularly polarized light. To this end, a UV-induced λ/2 waveplate as in the quoted IEEE reference may be used. With the λ/2 waveplate in the core, circularly polarized light will or will not bereflected by the fourth altered zone, depending on the direction ofrotation of the E-vector of the light propagating in the core. Thepolarization axis of the λ/2 wave plate can be oriented either along orat a right angle to the s-polarized direction of the fourth alteredzone. Another embodiment of an all-fiber polarimeter, as shown in FIGS.12A and 12B, uses two identical altered zones 48, 48 with the azimuthalangles spaced at substantially 90 degrees, and p-polarized light for thefirst reflecting surface is therefore s-polarized for the secondreflecting surface. The light intensity of both polarization states inthe fiber core may therefore be measured independently, although thefull polarization state cannot be determined with only two reflectingsurfaces. A slight deviation from the orthogonal azimuthal angles willbalance the polarization dependence of the two zones, thereby reducingpolarization-dependent losses. Both embodiments are shown with suitabledetectors 50 for detecting the light directed outwardly by theassociated altered zones.

The return loss for all-fiber polarimeters is greater than 40 dB.

It should be noted that certain losses in an attenuator and thatpolarization dependent tapping in a tap can be compensated for byincluding at least two altered refractive index zones within theattenuator or tap, with the zones being oriented relative to each otherto achieve the desired degree of compensation. Such zones could becreated by sweeping the beam through the workpiece from, for example,left to right, and then again (at the same relative angle) from top tobottom, possibly at the same location.

The Laser

A suitable type of ultrafast pulsed laser for producing a beam accordingto this invention is a laser emitting pulses each with a duration ofless than 1 picosecond, preferably between 2 and 200 femtoseconds, andmore preferably about 100 femtoseconds, and a pulse energy between 1nanojoule and 1 millijoule. The laser can be operated using singlepulses or with a variable pulse repetition rate between 500 Hz and 1GHz, preferably between 1 kHz and 100 MHz. The laser repetition rate isselected to be higher than the thermal diffusion time out of themodified volume element to allow heat to accumulate between laser shotsto soften the glass, ideally up to the liquefying point or glasstemperature of the material, to enable the material to deform to thephotoinduced changes in charge distribution and temperature profile.This accumulated heating effect both enables material flow to create theindex of refraction changes and self anneals out stress within thewritten zone. For 10 micron diameter focal regions the typical thermaldiffusion time is on the order of 10 microseconds. For such cases, theideal laser repetition rate is greater than 100 KHz to provide pulses attime intervals shorter than 10 microseconds. In general, the higher therepetition rate the better; however, practical limitations in laseraverage power, limit this prospect as the size of the volume elementbeing created in the material increases. Larger volume elements requirehigher pulse energy and thereby are limited to lower repetition ratesfor any given average power laser system. The conditions for approachingliquefication of the glass scale as the square of the beam diameter. Inthese cases, a second laser such as a CO₂ laser, can be used to heat thezone for increasing the compliance of the material to the writing laser.The wavelength of the light must be greater than that of the absorptionregion of the glass material in which a refractive index change is to bemade. In the case of standard fused silica glass, which is commonly usedin the manufacture of optical waveguides and fibers, the wavelength ofthe light must therefore be greater than 200 nanometers. The laser forthis application is typically based on a Ti:Sapphire, Chromium doped, orErbium doped solid state mode-locked laser oscillator. Depending on theenergy of the light pulses required for exposing the glass materials,the light pulses from the laser oscillator may also be amplified throughan amplifier stage based on one or more of similar solid state lasermedia with broadband gain. The output from either the laser oscillatoror the amplifier may also be used to pump an optical parametricamplifier to generate the light pulses used to expose the glassmaterials.

A preferred laser system for this invention is therefore one in whichthe output of a frequency-doubled Erbium doped fiber laser is amplifiedin a laser regerative amplifier that is based on a Ti:Sapphire gainmaterial, providing light pulses of approximately 100 femtosecondduration each with an energy of between 1 nanojoule and 1 millijoule ata pulse repetition rate of between 1 kHz and 100 MHz. The laser lightsource beam diameter should be in the range of >0.1 to about 10 mm; thefocal length should be in the range of about 1 mm to about 30 cm; andthe numerical aperture of any lens or mirror utilized therewith shouldbe in the range of about 0.05 to about 1.3.

As indicated above, the laser light can be focused with a lens or amirror, thereby creating very high intensity light in the focal region.At peak pulse intensities at or above the threshold for inducingpermanent refractive index changes, which is about 10¹⁰ W/cm², the focalregion can be used as a write beam. By moving the write beam relative tothe glass material to be written into, the microstructure of the glasswill be restructured to create a defined zone having permanently alteredrefractive index characteristics. The altered zone can be created bypin-point focusing, or line focusing, of the beam at a target region inthe workpiece or by sweeping the write beam over the target region. Thealtered zone can be created in a variety of optical waveguides andfibers, including any glass substrate with an embedded opticalwaveguide, conventional optical fibers, polarization maintaining fibers,optical fibers with Germanium enriched core, optical fibers withrare-earth dopants either in the core or in the cladding region,hydrogen loaded optical fibers, optical waveguides and fibers havingmore than one core, such as the waist region of a taper coupler, opticalwaveguides and fibers having more than one cladding, such as W-fibers,holey fibers (photonic crystal fibers), fiber Bragg gratings, photonicbandgap materials, glasses doped to provide multiphoton resonance forimproving laser writing performance by decreasing laser thresholds formaterial modification, and other optical waveguides and fibers withcomplicated refractive index profiles.

Additional Procedural Considerations and Modifications

One method for accurately creating altered zones in optical waveguidesor fibers having a core has the optical waveguide or fiber mounted on ahigh precision stage with better than 1 micron positioning accuracy. Thefocal region of the laser beam is aligned with the core using thefollowing alignment procedure.

The peak pulse intensity of the laser source is first set at low powerto avoid making permanent refractive index changes to the glass duringthe alignment procedure. The laser beam is oriented at a desired anglerelative to the longitudinal axis of the core, depending on the desiredshape of the altered zone to be created. The focal region is scannedover the optical waveguide or fiber, and a photomultiplier tube is usedto detect the amount of multiphoton fluorescence from the core. Thelocation of the focal region is optimally aligned to the location of thecore when the detected amount of multiphoton fluorescence is at amaximum. Using the optimum alignment as a spatial reference, the focalregion is then moved, after the peak pulse intensity has been increasedto at least the threshold for inducing permanent refractive indexchanges, to create altered zones in the optical waveguide or fiber. Thelaser beam can be directed towards the workpiece “from above”, “frombelow”, or “from the side” referring to a setup wherein the focal regionof the laser source is initially positioned above, below, or to one sideof the optical waveguide or fiber mounted in the precision stage. Whendirecting the laser beam “from above”, for example, the focal region isinitially positioned above the optical waveguide or fiber, and moveddownwards.

Using two or more laser sources, or a single source whose output beam issplit into two or more beams, allows for collision of the beams, i.e.the focal regions of the multiple beams intersect in the glass materialsuch that the combined peak pulse intensity reaches threshold only inthe intersect or target region, thereby improving the localization ofthe refractive index change. The alignment procedure is similar to theabove, only the maximum fluorescence is now indicative of the focalregions being aligned relative to each other and to the core. The focalregions are then either moved in unison for creating the altered zone,or the workpiece is moved with respect to the focal regions.

The use of multiple beams for creating the altered zones in theworkpiece should provide better resolution and potentially a morehomogeneous zone of altered refractive index characteristics. Also, withmultiple beams there is the potential to take advantage ofinterferometric effects to create specific types of altered zones,including for example, micro-gratings.

While the foregoing describes methods using one or more moving beams ora moving workpiece, it should be understood that altered zones can becreated without relative movement between the beam(s) and the workpieceas long as the focal region of the beam(s) can be located with pin-pointaccuracy at a predetermined target region within the workpiece.

Other beneficial material modification techniques that fall within thescope of this invention can be used for femtosecond-pulse-assistedmicrostructuring of an optical waveguide. In general, these specialtechniques involve the addition of externally applied stimuli to thefemtosecond-pulse microstructuring methods described already in thisspecification. Combining additional stimuli together with femtosecondpulse exposure increases the functionality of femtosecond-pulse-modifiedoptical-waveguide technology, as described below.

Specifically, the purpose of applying external stimuli to the opticalwaveguide during femtosecond-pulse microstructuring of an opticalwaveguide is, in a first instance, to create permanent regions of stressand/or stress birefringence in and around the femtosecond pulse modifiedregion of the optical waveguide. In a second instance, the purpose is tobuild in a permanent electric field in and around the modified region ofthe optical waveguide.

In order to understand how stress and/or an electric field can beintroduced in and around the femtosecond-pulse-modified region of theoptical waveguide, it is necessary to examine the heat transfer dynamicsthat occur when the waveguide material (glass) (partially) absorbs theenergy of a femtosecond pulse that has been focused in the material. Forsimplicity, the femtosecond pulse focal spot can be characterized by aradius, a_(rad). Assume that the waveguide material has a thermaldiffusivity constant, K. Assume further that the energy of thefemtosecond pulse is uniformly deposited within the spherical volume ofmaterial bounded by the radius, a_(rad). Set for discussion purposesa_(rad)=10 μm. The characteristic time constant for diffusion of thethermal energy deposited by the pulse is, approximately, 0.1 a_(rad)²/K. For fused silica at 100° C. the thermal diffusivity coefficient Kis 0.0082 cm²/sec. Therefore the characteristic time constant fordiffusion of the thermal energy (for a 10 μm focal spot) in fused silicais approximately 1.2×10⁻⁵ sec. Heat dissipation from the focal spot byblackbody radiation for temperatures below 1500° C. can be neglected.Therefore, the focal spot in the material loses energy mainly by heatdiffusion; of course, processes associated with a rearrangement of thematerial lattice within the focal spot retain some of the pulse energy.The lattice modification energy leads to refractive index modification,as already discussed.

If a train of femtosecond pulses is incident in and around the focalregion that overlaps a first pulse, and the pulse train has a pulserepetition period shorter than about 1.2×10⁻⁵ sec (for this example),then the condition is reached where the thermal energy in the focalvolume is accumulated at a faster rate than it is dissipated, therebyleading to an increase in the temperature of the focal region. Thus, theenergy per femtosecond pulse, the femtosecond pulse repetition rate andthe radius of the focal spot, together control the temperature of thematerial in and around the focal spot.

To introduce permanent stress/stress-birefringence in an opticalwaveguide stress is applied to the waveguide during the femtosecondpulse processing up to a value below the (tension/compression) fracturestrength of the material. Femtosecond processing conditions (energy perfemtosecond pulse, the femtosecond pulse repetition rate and the radiusof the focal spot) are set in such a way that the material temperaturein and around the focal spot is controlled to a value in the vicinityof, or above, the softening temperature of the waveguide glass. It willbe realized that the waveguide region processed by femtosecond radiationdoes not support stress while the temperature of the region remainsabove the softening point of the glass. When the externally appliedstress is removed, following femtosecond processing of the waveguide,the stress distribution in the material changes. The applied stress inthe material surrounding the exposed region will tend to relax and in sodoing will stress the exposed region of the glass, which now retains acondition of permanent stress because the glass in the exposed regionhas cooled to its operating temperature, which normally is well belowthe softening point of the glass. It is well known that localizedinternal stress in glass leads to optical birefringence in and aroundthe stressed region.

This apply-stress-while-writing method can be used to subject the coreof an optical fiber to directional stress by tensioning/compressing thefiber while writing longitudinal stress members adjacent and parallel tothe core of the fiber with a femtosecond pulse train. It can also beused to render birefringent waveguides written with a femtosecond pulsetrain by applying a transverse stress to the waveguide region during thewriting process.

FIGS. 14A, B and C illustrate diagrammatically the application of stresswith this invention. FIG. 14A shows an optical fiber (waveguide) 80having a core 82 and cladding 84 within a clamping apparatus 86 that iscapable of applying mechanical stress to the fiber. The result is agenerally symmetrical stress field within the fiber, identified bystress lines 88. When a write beam 90 having a focal region 92 isapplied to the waveguide as in FIG. 14B there will be localized heatingin the target region as discussed hereinabove. This has the effect ofrelaxing the mechanical stress and redistributing the stress field inthe vicinity of the focal region, as seen at 94. Once the write beam andmechanical stress are removed after writing the zone of permanentlyaltered refractive index characteristics within the waveguide there willbe an altered stress field as seen at 98, providing the desired opticalbirefringence.

A similar approach to that used to induce permanent stress can be usedto create an internal electric field in a femtosecond-modified region ofan optical waveguide. See for example FIGS. 15A, B and C. FIG. 15A showsan optical fiber 100 having a core 102 and a cladding 104 positionedsuch that a strong electrical field, identified by 106, is appliedthereto from top to bottom. This induces an electric polarizationthroughout the region of fiber over which the electric field is applied.This constant electric field, up to a magnitude comparable to theelectrical breakdown field of the waveguide material, is applied duringthe femtosecond pulse modification process as seen in FIG. 15B. There itis seen that the write beam 108 has a focal region 110 which alters theelectric field as at 112. Poling of the material when it is at atemperature in the vicinity of, or above, the softening temperature ofthe waveguide glass is facilitated by the high temperature. When thematerial cools, memory of the applied electric field is retained in thestructure of the femtosecond pulse modified region of the material.Built-in or polled fields are used (in combination with periodicstructures that phase match the process) for facilitating efficientnonlinear processes, such as second-harmonic generation. These areusually implemented by alternating the direction of the applied fieldduring the writing process. Thus as seen in FIG. 15C after the writebeam 108 and the external electric field have been removed there will bea static polarization field 114 in and around the femtosecond modifiedregion 116 of the fiber. The write beam should be removed, allowing thealtered region to solidify, before the electric field is removed.

Based on the above-described methods to couple light into and out of afiber core to an altered zone, it is possible to create more complexdevices in multiple core fiber as shown in FIGS. 13A and 13B. As shownin the Figures, light coupled into or out of one or more of the coresmay be channelled between the cores by altered region interconnectsbased on mechanisms described herein. Different cores may have differentcladding structures (including multiple cladding structures and photonicbandgap structures), sizes, doping, and may alter light in differentways, including but not limited to phase shifts, dispersion,amplification, attenuation, and frequency conversion. Devices based onthis method may include but are not limited to Mach-Zehnderinterferometers, interleavers, add-drop filters, and arrayed waveguidegratings.

Another benefit of the present invention is found in the ability ofimproving the coupling between optical fibers or waveguides that havebeen altered in accordance with the present invention. With thisinvention the refractive index characteristics of the fiber or waveguidecan be modified or altered at or near the interface point so as to matchthe characteristics of the fiber, waveguide or optical source to whichit is to be coupled. Essentially, with this invention it is possible tosubstantially enlarge or reshape the waveguide's mode field pattern soas to reduce the divergence of the light exiting the waveguide.

A person skilled in the art will now readily appreciate the flexibilityand versatility of the disclosed methods for writing altered zones inglass. To give an example for the flexibility of the disclosed methods:variations of the methods include the use of two or more laser sourceswhich are moved independently from each other rather than in unison. Togive an example for the versatility of the disclosed methods: themethods can be applied to specialty optical fibers, as distinct fromconventional telecommunications fibers, which will apparently produceother novel products in addition to the novel all-fiber productsdisclosed. Variations of the described embodiments are therefore to beconsidered within the scope of the invention.

1. An optical waveguiding device created from an annular optical fiberhaving at least one core and at least one cladding, said optical fiberincluding at least a single zone located along the length thereof atwhich the refractive index characteristics of the optical fiber havebeen permanently altered to create a secondary waveguide path withinsaid fiber, whereby the altered optical fiber can serve as anattenuator, an optical tap, a polarimeter or a Bragg grating.
 2. Theoptical waveguiding device of claim 1 wherein said zone is locatedwithin said core.
 3. The optical waveguiding device of claim 1 whereinsaid zone is located within said cladding.
 4. The optical waveguidingdevice of claim 1 wherein said zone is located at the interface of saidcladding and said core.
 5. The optical waveguiding device of claim 1wherein said zone is located within an evanescent region of saidwaveguiding device.
 6. The optical waveguiding device of claim 1 whereinsaid zone is located at a specific location within said core, withinsaid cladding, or at the interface of said core and said cladding, andsaid zone is oriented perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of said core,at an angle to said longitudinal axis, or parallel to said longitudinalaxis.
 7. The optical waveguiding device of claim 1 wherein saidsecondary waveguide path extends through the core and at least partiallythrough the cladding, said optical waveguiding device exhibitingcontrolled polarization sensitivity.
 8. The optical waveguiding deviceof claim 1 wherein said optical fiber is selected from the group ofoptical fibers consisting of: a conventional optical fiber; apolarization maintaining optical fiber; an optical fiber with aGermanium enriched core; a hydrogen deuterium loaded optical fiber; aW-fiber; a multiple cladded fiber; a photonics crystal fiber;intersecting optical fibers; a taper coupler; and a rare earth dopedfiber.
 9. An optical attenuator comprising an elongated annular opticalfiber having a core, a cladding, and an optical transmission axisextending along the optical fiber, said optical fiber also comprising asingle zone therein wherein the index of refraction of the optical fiberhas been permanently altered such that a controlled portion of lighttransmitted along said core is removed therefrom at said zone, therebyleaving a controlled remainder of the light propagating in the core. 10.The optical attenuator according to claim 9 wherein said zone isoriented perpendicular to said transmission axis, or at an acute angleto said transmission axis.
 11. The optical attenuator according to claim9 wherein said zone is located in an evanescent region of the cladding.12. The optical attenuator of claim 9 wherein said zone extends throughthe core and through the cladding at an acute angle to said transmissionaxis, said optical attenuator exhibiting controlled polarizationsensitivity.
 13. An optical tap comprising an elongated annular opticalfiber having a core, a cladding, and an optical transmission axisextending along the optical fiber, said optical fiber also comprising asingle zone therein wherein the index of refraction of the optical fiberhas been permanently altered such that a portion of light transmittedalong said core is removed therefrom at said zone.
 14. The optical tapaccording to claim 13 wherein said zone is oriented perpendicular tosaid transmission axis, at an acute angle to said transmission axis, orparallel to said transmission axis.
 15. The optical tap according toclaim 13 wherein said zone is located in said core, said cladding, atthe interface between said core and said cladding, or in an evanescentregion of the cladding.
 16. The optical tap of claim 13 wherein saidzone extends through the core and through the cladding at an acute angleto said transmission axis, said optical tap exhibiting controlledpolarization sensitivity.
 17. A power meter arrangement for identifyingpower levels in an optical fiber comprising an optical tap according toclaim 13 in combination with: detector means located adjacent said fiberand radially aligned with said zone, said detector means being adaptedto receive light removed from said fiber at said zone and to create asignal proportional to the removed light; and reader means connected tosaid detector means and adapted to equate said signal to a power level.18. An optical polarimeter comprising an elongated annular optical fiberhaving a core, a cladding, and an optical transmission axis extendingalong the optical fiber, said optical fiber also comprising at least twolongitudinally spaced apart zones therein wherein the index ofrefraction of the optical fiber has been permanently altered to createsecondary waveguides, said secondary waveguides having azimuthal anglesspaced apart at substantially 90 degrees, and each of said zones formedto preferentially tap s-polarized light out of said core, such that saidpolarimeter is capable of measuring two orthogonal light polarizationstates therein.
 19. The optical polarimeter of claim 18 wherein eachsaid zone extends through the core and through the cladding at an acuteangle to said transmission axis, said optical polarimeter exhibitingcontrolled polarization sensitivity.
 20. The optical polarimeter ofclaim 18 wherein said azimuthal angles are spaced at an angle differentfrom 90 degrees to reduce polarization-dependent losses through thebalancing of the polarization dependencies of the zones.
 21. The opticalpolarimeter of claim 18 including four of said zones located in saidcore, spaced apart along said transmission axis with the azimuthalangles thereof spaced at substantially 45 degrees, with each of saidzones being oriented substantially at a Brewster angle to said axis,causing it to tap s-polarized light our of said core, and including aλ/2 wave plate in said core located between any adjacent pair of saidzones, the polarization axis of said λ/2 wave plate having anorientation along the s-polarization direction of one zone of saidadjacent pair, such that said polarimeter is capable of measuring allfour Stokes parameters which completely specify light polarizationstates in said polarimeter.